Epistemic Closure Essays

Epistemic Closure Essays Epistemic Closure Essay Epistemic Closure Essay Essay Topic: Rene Descartes In this essay I am traveling to analyse the rule of epistemological closing and so I will look at the counterexamples. proposed by by Fred Dretsky and Jonathan Vogel. I will analyze and come to a decision whether their statements are converting and what responces there are to their counterexamples. In general epistemology is a  «branch of doctrine that is directed towards theories of beginnings. nature and bounds of knowledge »1. Rene Descartes’ celebrated treatise  «Meditations on First Philosophy » will besides be discussed in relation to the Cartesian Method of Doubt. which is mostly based on the closing rule. Rene Descartes’ chief purpose was to do people get down doubting the things which they ab initio saw as granted. He wanted to take people to get down establishing their cognition That’s why in the First Meditation this he turned to planetary agnosticism. and claimed  «I am traveling to follow my method. so. I shall hold to suspend opinion about everything I used to believe2 » . This way of believing leads Descartes to the decision that he can be certain merely about the being of himself ( the celebrated  «cogito ergo sum » comes here ) . and besides he can be certain about the being of God. hence. so the stuff universe exists. as God is non lead oning a priori. As we can see Descartes made usage of the closing rule. the simple signifier of which says that if Person A knows x . and x entails y . and S knows that x entails y . so Person S knows Y. In instance of Descartes. he claims that he knows that God exists. and the being of God implies the being of material universe ( as God is non a prevaricator to lead on us ) . he knows that God is non a prevaricator and will non lead on us. hence he knows that the material universe exists. This proposition is more frequently called ASA ( anti-skeptical statement ) . Another illustration of this is given by Tim Black3. he proposed the undermentioned logical proposition: ( 1 ) If I know that I have custodies. and if I know that my holding custodies entails that I am non a brain-in-a-vat. so I know that I am non a brain-in-a-vat. ( 2 ) I know that my holding custodies entails that I am non a brain-in-a-vat. ( 3 ) I know that I have custodies. Therefore. ( 4 ) I know that Im non a brain-in-a-vat. However. here the disbelieving mystifier begins. as it is impossible to cognize whether I am non a encephalon in a vat . So the first 3 premises are independently plausible. but they support the decision ( 4 ) . which is non plausible. Keith DeRose4 offers us to see the alleged Abominable Concurrence: given closure the first premiss is plausible. nevertheless it is detestable. as I know that I have custodies while non cognizing that I am non a encephalon in a VAT. Some would accept the ASA. e. g. harmonizing to Tim Black. G. E. Moore would hold likely accepted it. Moore would likely accept ( 1 ) . ( 2 ) and ( 3 ) . and so claim that it follows from that ( 4 ) is true. that is he knows that he is non a encephalon in a vat5 . However. there were many who denied the closing rule. First I will see the counter-examples put frontward by Fred Dretske. Dretske tries to exemplify the failure of the closing rule by giving the illustration of a Zebra in a Zoo. In the ill-famed illustration Dretske makes two claims: ( 1 ) You know there’s a zebra in forepart of you. ( 2 ) You don’t know that it isn’t a smartly disguised mule. Dretske so explains:  «You have some general uniformities on which you rely. regularities to which you give look by such comments as.  «That isn’t really likely » or  «Why should the menagerie governments do that?  » †¦ But the inquiry here is now whether the option is plausible. non whether it is more or less plausible than that there are existent zebras in the pen. but whether you know that this alternate hypothesis is false. I don’t believe you do6 What Dretske tries to explicate is that cognition is an evidentiary province in which all relevant options are eliminated. Then he asserts the closing rule fails if the cognition P requires to except non all. but merely all relevant options to P. However Vogel finds the description of the state of affairs implausible. Given what Dretske has said in puting out the illustration. I think it is more sensible to reason that if you know ( 1 ) you know ( 2 ) every bit good. and closing is preserved after all7 He keeps explicating his place. in which he claims that if a belief is more plausible than its denial. a individual should be justified in accepting that belief. The ground you know that an animate being in the pen is non a cloaked mule ( if you do cognize it’s a zebra ) is that you have a true belief to that consequence backed up by good grounds. That grounds includes background information about the nature and map of menagerie. You know that zoos by and large exhibit echt specimens. and that it would be a great trade of problem to mask a mule and to replace it for a zebra†¦ If you did experience there was a opportunity that a switch had been made. you would hold ground to doubt that the animate being you see is a zebra. You would non cognize that it is a zebra. Vogel farther explains the defects of Dretske’s Zoo instance. by presenting the Car Theft instance. which I will analyse now. Car Larceny instance besides is widely counted as a counter-example to cloture rule Because you at the same clip cognize a proposition about where you auto is. but you fail to cognize another proposition which is a clear logical effect of the first. You know the proposition ( P ) My auto is now parked on Avenue A. You besides know that the proposition entails ( Q ) My auto has non been stolen and driven off from where it was parked Yet it seems you do now cognize q. despite the fact that it is for you a clear logical effect of p. which you do cognize. As you seemingly fail to cognize a clear logical effect of a proposition you do cognize. the closing rule is seemingly violated. Vogel claims that the auto larceny instance is indistinguishable to a lottery. Having your auto stolen is an unfortunate opposite number to winning the lottery †¦ Believing that your auto won’t be stolen is like believing you won’t win the lottery8 . Vogel claims that this illustration is much stronger ( it has a statistical footing in it instead than the Zebra instance. He claims that Zebra instance lacks the lottery component. so it is non clear why you do non cognize that the striped animate being before you isn’t a cloaked mule. Using this as a footing. Vogel explains that the Car Theft Case itself besides does non take to any decision sing the closing rule. To exemplify this. let’s return to the initial premises. As we can see there is no lottery component connected to being a encephalon in a vat . Its non a affair of chance. as we can non cognize if anyone is a encephalon in a VAT. or whether anyone can be a encephalon in a VAT at all. So the Car Theft counterexample fails every bit good. In decision. we can see that the closing rule. on which Rene Descartes Meditations are based is argued to be incorrect. nevertheless the counterexamples which foremost seem converting. such as the Car Theft Case and Zoo Zebra instance are doomed to neglect. Biblography DeRose. Keith. and Ted A. Warfield. Incredulity: A Contemporary Reader. New York: Oxford UP. 1999. Print. Epistemology ( redirected from Epistomology ) . TheFreeDictionary. com. N. p. . n. d. Web. 19 Jan. 2013. . Cesar francks. Richard. Descartes’ Meditations: A Reader’s Guide. London: Continuum. 2008. Print. Jonathan Vogel. Are There Counterexamples to the Closure Principle? N. p. . n. d. Web. 19 Jan. 2013. . Tim Black. What We Can Learn From The Skeptical Puzzle. N. p. . n. d. Web. 19 Jan. 2013. .

Confucianism Reflection Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Confucianism Reflection - Essay Example If we were to look back into the history of China as a people, what becomes evident is that they have a deeply rooted respect for their elders and ancestors that continue to this very day. It is this sense of respect that has created a strong family bond among the Chinese. The aforementioned Confucianist belief conveys the message that respect for parents is not only something that should be done in the presence of others, but it is something that must be embodied in order to be an effective tenet of the human relationship or relationships between senior and junior members of the family. The idea behind the passage that I chose to reflect upon is simple. My understanding is that children are being trained to know, from an early age, that if one shows respect to his elders, then he will not need to demand that his elders respect him as well. The true respect and family relationship is built when the young generation shows support for his elders, without feeling obligated to do so. It then becomes important for children to understand that showing respect for their elders, and not showing them a bad face is the kind of payback that is expected or accorded to people who have nurtured them since conception and helped them become contributing members of society. Parents, are known to do everything that they can for their children up until the time when their age no longer permits them to do so. Once they become feeble and weak, it then becomes the responsibility of their children to sacrifice for and respect their parents until their last day on earth. Some children these days often show their parents a bad face once they are asked by their elders to perform certain tasks, because of the sense of privilege and self-centered attitude that modern parenting styles have bestowed upon them. Thus showing a lifelong disrespect for their parents rather than showing thanks for the sacrifice that the elders committed themselves to for the benefit of the younger

M 25 Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

M 25 - Assignment Example These have practical purposes throughout the course (Data Collection, n.d., pp. 113-115). II. Why I Chose M25 As I have learned from my experience teaching language and Arabic especially as a second language to my students, immediate feedback is necessary, because the topics build on each other, and because I believe that language teaching ought to be dynamic and relevant at every turn and moment of the teaching sessions. Because the teaching classes and topics build on one another, where a student or a group of students fail to grasp the essence of particular lessons, then they are unable to follow through to the rest of the sessions. This is problematic for those who are left behind. The only way to prevent this is to make sure that students are able to grasp the main lessons for the day. This is very hard to determine if evaluations and feedback occur infrequently. If the teacher only gives out periodic but infrequent assessments of student learning, then for many it might be too late, and interventions to correct the deficiencies in learning may be worthless as well. Mistakes and deficiencies in learning the nuances of a particular lesson must be corrected as they occur, in other words. Mistakes can pile up and the student can be left with less than optimal learning of the language as a result. It is therefore very important that the teacher has within his power the ability to gauge understanding and learning as the sessions unfold. The quick way to do this is via collection methods for data that are as prescribed in M25. The power of the M25 data collection modes is in the ability to be able to rapidly gather feedback and to gauge progress in learning. This has very pragmatic applications in tuning the course work and the content and manner of the teaching of the language so that those are in line with the pace of learning of the students, and with the deficiencies that the students have as far as learning the new language is concerned (Data Collection, n. d., pp. 113-115). As discussed above, also, I chose M25 because of the way the class sessions are structured, and also because from time to time I want to be able to revisit the learnings from previous sessions in order to reinforce them, and to correct the deficiencies in the learning of my students. The M25 methods allow me to be able to find out just what the deficient areas are, and then tailor the review parts of the sessions to be able to tackle those areas that are deficient. Student inputs and feedback are very essential in this case (Data Collection, n.d., pp. 113-115). III. How I Used M25 To gauge the effectiveness of the different methods, this researcher made use of all of the prescribed methods in M25 in different sessions. This is to gauge not only the effectiveness of the teaching methods and the level of progress of the students, but also to get a feel of what methods work best in settings where students learn a second language in classroom settings. This is a two-ed ged purpose in other words. For different sessions I made use of 2 plus 2, the â€Å"Muddiest Point†, the â€Å"Minute Paper†, the â€Å"Plus-Minus-Question Mark†, and the RSQC2 (Data Collection, n.d., pp. 113-115). IV. Sample Data It is important to note that as far as getting feedback is concerned, the general

Effects of Reality Tv on Society Essay Example for Free

Effects of Reality Tv on Society Essay There are many discussions about the effects of reality TV on society. Positive and negative effects of reality TV are two parts of a coin. Unfortunately the coin mostly falls on the negative side. Many reality TV shows are created purely for profit without thinking about its consequences on the mindsets of viewers, especially young viewers . Media companies accept that they make these shows for profit and they do not care about the effects on people. They say that they just show us what we want. Is it right not to care about the viewers mental health just to make more money? Most of these shows do not portray reality and this weakens the ability of critical thinking, causes to depict a false image of life, develops wrong notions, erodes some ethical and moral practices. Reality TV shows give a false image of reality, since the people watching them are under the impression that everything happening in the show is real. According to a Time magazine article, some reality TV shows are edited to be dramatic and some quotes may actually be manufactured. Clashes and ugly feuds between the reality stars may be constructed and some parts of the shows may also be completely edited and cut out so they dont make the final show that people see on TV. Some critics actually charge that reality TV is not so real and that these shows may be far more manipulative than we think. When all is said and done, some people on the reality shows say that they were unfairly represented and the reality taken out of the show therefore making the show pure entertainment. In some ways, this gives the audience that the characters in these shows are real and acting normal. Some viewers empathize with the show’s stars. Viewers tend to behave, feel, think like the stars and during this process they lose their critical thinking skills. A great example can be seen in John Cheveer’s article ‘’The Enormous Radio’’. In the article a woman has a radio that is capable of playing the neighbor’s conversations. The woman has created an apished public self, and when she hears the neighbor’s private conversations she is witnessed to the nakedness of their misery. She asks her husband ‘’We’re happy, aren’t we, darling? We are happy, aren’t we? ’’ (Cheever, pg. 83) . So she lost her ability to judge her own happiness by being witnessing other people’s life’s, just like some reality TV shows . Certain shows are filled with glamour, filtrations, indecent acts, promiscuity, greed, jealousy, conflict and other sensitive issues. These create a controversy in the society where this society begins to support unethical and immoral practices. Humans take the negative parts of these shows causing increased rates in murder, corruption in society and antisocial behaviors. As Salman Rushdie claims, ‘’ The television set once so idealistically thought of as our window on the world , has become a dime-store mirror instead. ’ (2001, pg. 63) . Values such as being successful, smart, educated, acting polite has less value nowadays. A glaring example on mental effects ‘’ When the sister of a woman who appeared on ABC’s Extreme Makeover committed suicide in 2004, the contestant sued the network for wrongful death and other charges . The contestant, who was competing to win free plastic surgery but lost, claimed that her sister had felt so guilty about mocking her appearance on the program that she killed herself. ABC settled the case for an undisclosed amount last year. ‘’ (W. Peters, 2010, pg. 74) . This example also shows producers of reality shows do not care about the consequences on society as long as they are making money. As Jeremy W. Peters claims ‘’In recent years producers and networks have increasingly pushed the boundaries of television voyeurism in search of another ratings hit’’ (2007, pg. 73) . Since there is not a law against producers to harming people, they do not be careful on what they show on programmes. Therefore there are social organizations which want to make a law against reality TV or completely ban reality shows. Many programmes insult and degrade moral values. ‘‘It ? s hard to defend the deception of Joe Millionaire which set up twenty women to court construction worker Evan Marriott by telling them he was a multimillionaire’’(Poniewozik, 2003, pg. 69) . This example shows us how the show degrades women . Also on some shows great portion of the African American contestants are shown as bad. For example the show ‘’Love Cruise’’ is where singles pair up on cruise ships and get married. The women were told to hook up with whomever they want, but every woman chose a white man. The one guy left standing was the black man. Of course we cannot claim that reality shows effect every human in a negative way . In fact there are people who claim reality TV has positive effects on the society . Such as James Poniewozik ‘’It has given the networks water-cooler buzz again; it has reminded viewers jaded by sitcoms and dramas why TV can be exciting; and at its best, its teaching TV a new way to tell involving human stories. ’’ ( 2003, pg. 67) . Also these shows are a place where people could show their talents and get rewarded for it. On the show American Idol, a woman had two children but she did not have enough money to raise them. She had a great voice, so she won the money prize and now the family has a great life. Unfortunately these kinds of positive effects are only a small part of the pie . By considering all of the points made above the effects of reality shows on people may not be crucial, but it is definitely taken in great importance. The ignorance of producers and effects on mental health and social talents are unjust and corruptive. Maybe strict laws could put a stop to all of it but until that time comes the community will still get effected by reality TV.

Animation :: essays research papers

Animation   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Animation is a visual technique that creates the illusion of motion, rather than recording motion through live action. The technique is used mainly for motion pictures. Animation can be created by illustrators, filmmakers, video makers, and computer specialists. Animation is most popular in creating cartoon movies. Advertisers also employ animation to develop commercials for television. In addition, producers of instructional films may use animation to help explain a difficult idea or one that could not be shown in live action. Animation can also be combined with live action in a movie. Many animators continue to make many drawings by hand. Since the mid-1980's, however, computer assistance combined with hand-drawn animation has become standard in many movie studios. These methods created such feature-length animated films as The Lion King (1994) and The Prince of Egypt (1998).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  One increasingly important type of animation is computer-generated imagery (CGI), in which the computer creates the characters and backgrounds and animates them without actually photographing either cels or figures. Films made entirely with CGI include Toy Story (1995), Antz (1998), and A Bug's Life (1998).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Most CGI-animated characters start with a sketch or small sculpture called a â€Å"maquette† that is used for reference. The artist then creates a computer image called a wireframe model. The wireframe model serves as a framework for a shell or skin that gives the computer image a solid, three-dimensional appearance. To move the character, a computer animator changes the positions of the wireframe model in a number of key frames. The computer then supplies the frames between the key frames, moving the model from one of the animator's positions to the next.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  After creating the three-dimensional model, the artist adds color, texture, and shading in a process known as texture mapping. Texture mapping makes the surfaces of the characters and scenery look real. A texture map can be created by a computer program or scanned from an actual photograph.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The final step is called rendering. During rendering, the computer calculates the effect of light, color, and texture on the model's surface. For a film or video, the computer will produce a two-dimensional digital picture of the characters for each frame of the animation. The computer artist usually adjusts many visual effects, such as camera focus and transparency, during the rendering phase.

Dehydration Essay

Passing out, lethargy, constipation, dry mouth and even dry eyes are very few symptoms In the long list of signs to tell us that we are dehydrated. Being dehydrated Is potentially very bad and If not taken care of a person can end up In the hospital or even dying. Many things can cause dehydration Including drinking too much alcohol or simply not drinking enough water. Without ample amounts of water our bodies cannot function correctly, and being made up of 70% water it is understandable as to why this is the case.All people suffer from dehydration, it does to affect one age group more than another, and likewise it does not affect one race or gender more than the others do. Plainly, put, If enough water Is not drank everyday than a person Is at risk for becoming dehydrated and developing symptoms that can be quite uncomfortable. First, some of the functions of water in the body are to keep everything moist, from our eyes to our mouths, and even our Joints. Imagine trying to eat food without the assistance of the saliva our bodies produce, it would be very difficult to have to swallow dry, chewed up food.Urine becomes dark yellow, with a strong ammonia meal and constipation Is common; the lack of water causes the stool to become more solid and less liquid-y because the body Is pulling water from every available resource. The recommended amount of water that the average person should drink is eight – z cups of water per day. That is a half-gallon of water every day that people are supposed to be drinking, more often than not soda and coffee is being drank instead, which sure they have water in them†¦ Just not the recommended amount that we need.Next, dehydration affects people of all ages, from little children to grown adults, to even the elderly. In children, dehydration causes tiredness and grumpiness, even the sensation of being hungry, or the craving for something unknown. In adults, dehydration can mean different and more serious side effects suc h as passing out or getting dizzy when standing up. In the elderly, dehydration, in my opinion is the worst time to see it. I think that older people need more water in their bodies because they dispel more In the given day.They may not have bladder control, especially If they are hooked up to a urinary bag, and not necessarily know when they have lost all of their water. Nursing homes help the elderly with this a lot of the time cause the people cannot do it on their own. For everyone else however, it is important to make sure we drink the vital amount of water to remain healthy. On another note, when a person is dehydrated they lose important vitamins and nutrients known as electrolytes.When children have a fever or diarrhea, pediatric is a good drink to give them because It Is packed full of electrolytes, It Is k for adults to are sodium, potassium, and chloride. These electrolytes help maintain blood pressure. Body movements require electrical currents to run through the body an d these charged ions make this possible. Sodium and potassium are positive ions that both function to provide nerve transmission, muscle contractions, and fluid balance. Chloride is a negative ion and its main function is to provide fluid balance.Not having enough sodium in your body can cause muscle cramps, but table salt is a quick fix of this deficiency. Not enough potassium can cause fatigue, and once again can be fixed quickly and simply with eating bananas. Finally, a chloride deficiency can cause a potassium or sodium deficiency. When being active and playing sports or Just being outdoors, drinking sports drinks like Storage can help maintain proper electrolyte balances. Yet again, many things cause people to lose water from their bodies at different speeds.Sweating causes us to lose water at significant speeds because our skin seeps water to cool us down on a hot day. If it is scorching hot outside and a person just stops sweating, this is a sign of dehydration and they shou ld seek out a water source fast. Similarly, alcohol makes us lose water quicker on many levels because it heats people up from the inside causing them to sweat and it depletes electrolytes from our system. Drinking water in between alcoholic beverages can help a person avoid a hangover because they are staying hydrated while drinking.Caffeine on the other hand, speeds up our heart rate, causing us to urinate more that in the end is causing us to lose more water than we would without the caffeine. These things can lead to dehydration of the person ingesting them does not know what the symptoms are and how to counteract them. Finally, making sure that a person does not become dehydrated is important, even more so for people less than healthy. A person with a hole in their heart is more susceptible to symptoms of dehydration than a healthy person, and the same with elderly. Everyone is responsible for the amounts of water they drink each day.We need to instill in children at a young ag e that staying dehydrated is important. It is also important to work it into the daily routine, and make it habit to drink 64 ounces of water per day, and keeping an eye on electrolytes as well. Eating lots of fruits or vegetables or water-based foods can help a person increase their water intake without necessarily drinking as many glasses of water. Overall, there is more than enough water on this planet, and foods that contain water for everyone to be able to survive. If someone becomes dehydrated in my opinion, it is because of his or her own personal neglect.Should this be the case that person needs to understand the importance of staying hydrated and how this simple task can solve many ailments. Staying hydrated can make a person feel Just a little bit better in many aspects, maybe their Joints are moving Just a little bit better, or they do not have to use eye drops 10 times a day. If you do not stay hydrated regularly already, you should try it Just to see what kinds of thing s it could do for you. Perhaps a little more energy for those long days would be nice. References: Retrieved from: (2010) Guidelines for a Healthy Diet: Prentice Hall

Capital Punishment The Death Penalty - 1261 Words

I) In this Term Paper I will be arguing Capital Punishment. I will attempt to remain unbiased in my writing until my closing; in which I will weigh in with my statement. a) Prof. Van den Haag was quoted from â€Å"Death or Life, New Arguments Against Capital Punishment?,† National Review, Feb. 8th, 1985 as saying; I can not accept the abolitionist belief that there is no crime horrible enough to deserve capital punishment. On the contrary, there are far more crimes that do than there are death sentences. All the more reason not to spare the few who do receive it. b) The Death Penalty has been an issue of ethical debate for centuries. While seen as archaic by some, it is seen as a justifiable evil by others. Yet some see it as the only true and effective method of deterring murder. c) Around the world, in the Medieval Era, citizens would gather to witness an execution. In current times the Death Penalty is nearly a taboo subject. As sensitive a subject of discussion as Abortion, Religion, Politics, Racism and Gay Marriage. Varying arguments can be found in varying degrees. Should the Death Penalty be abolished, or should its utilization b e increased? d) The Death Penalty in The United States has its proverbial head in the proverbial guillotine. Is the Death Penalty an Ethical and Moral option? II) Lex Talionis is a term for retributive justice used in lieu of metaphors such as â€Å"An Eye for an Eye.† III) Prof. Van den Haag reasons that the smallestShow MoreRelatedCapital Punishment : The Death Penalty1482 Words   |  6 PagesMrs. McElmoyl 12/12/14 Capital Punishment As stated by former governor of New York, Mario M. Cuomo, Always I have concluded the death penalty is wrong because it lowers us all; it is a surrender to the worst that is in us; it uses a power- the official power to kill by execution- that has never brought back a life, need inspired anything but hate. 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This is usually given to people that have committed serious offences or capital crimes. There are 31 states in the United States that are for the death penalty. Crimes that are punishable by the death penalty, vary from state to state. Examples of such crimes are; first degree murder or premeditated murder, murder with special circumstances, such as: intende d, multiple, and murder whichRead MoreCapital Punishment And The Death Penalty1539 Words   |  7 PagesCapital punishment, otherwise known as the death penalty, has been the center of debate for a long time. Capital punishment may be defined as the â€Å"[e]xecution of an offender sentenced to death after conviction by a court of law of a criminal offense† (Capital Punishment). Up until 1846, when Michigan became the first to abolish the death sentence, all states allowed legal practice of capital punishment by the government (States). Currently, there 32 states still supporting the death penalty and 18Read MoreThe Death Penalty Of Capital Punishment1480 Words   |  6 Pagesjustice system, such as the death penalty. Capital punishment has been used many times in history all around the world, and it was quite popular. Many people argue that capital punishment is useful in deterring crime and that it is only fair that criminals receive death as punishment for a heinous crim e. On the contrary, others see the death penalty as a violation of the 8th amendment. It restricts excessive fines, and it also does not allow cruel and unusual punishment to be inflicted upon criminals